Terahertz-infrared ellipsometer system, and method of use

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to ellipsometer and polarimeter systems, and more particularly is an ellipsometer or polarimeter or the like system which operates in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending to higher than at least 1 Tera-hertz (THz), and preferably through the Infra-red (IR) range up to, and higher than 100 THz, including:
         a source such as a backward wave oscillator; a Smith-Purcell cell; a free electron laser, or an FTIR source and a solid state device; and   a detector such as a Golay cell; a bolometer or a solid state detector;
 
and preferably including at least one odd-bounce polarization state image rotating system, and optionally including a polarizer, at least one compensator and/or modulator, in addition to an analyzer.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO OTHER APPLICATIONS

This Application is a CIP of Ser. No. 12/456,791 Filed Jun. 23, 2009 and therevia Claims Benefit of Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/208,735 Filed Feb. 27, 2009, and further Claims Benefit of Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/281,905 Filed Nov. 22, 2009.

STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL SUPPORT

This invention which is subject in this application was developed in part under support provided by a Grant from the Army under Phase I ARMY STTR Contract No. W911NF-08-C-01121.

The portion of this invention concerning the “odd bounce image rotation system and method of use” in this application was developed in part under support provided by a Grant from the National Science Foundation under Phase II SBIR Contract No. 9901510.

The United States Government has certain rights in this invention.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to ellipsometer and polarimeter systems which comprise a source of electromagnetic radiation, a polarization state generator, a sample supporting stage, a polarization state detector and a detector of electromagnetic radiation, and more particularly is an ellipsometer or polarimeter or the like system which operates in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending to higher than at least 1 Tera-hertz (THz), and preferably through the Infra-red (IR) range up to, and higher than 100 THz, comprising:

-   -   a source such as a backward wave oscillator; a Smith-Purcell         cell; a free electron laser, an FTIR source and/or a solid state         device; and     -   a detector such as a Golay cell; a bolometer and/or a solid         state detector;         preferably in functional combination with a polarization state         image rotating system comprised of a sequence of an odd number         of reflecting elements, such that a polarized electromagnetic         beam caused to enter, reflectively interacts with the odd number         of reflecting elements and exits in a direction which is         essentially non-deviated and non-displaced, with an azimuthally         rotated, but otherwise substantially unchanged, polarization         state.

BACKGROUND

The practice of ellipsometry is well established as a non-destructive approach to determining characteristics of sample systems, and can be practiced in real time. The topic is well described in a number of publications, one such publication being a review paper by Collins, titled “Automatic Rotating Element Ellipsometers: Calibration, Operation and Real-Time Applications”, Rev. Sci. Instrum., 61(8) (1990).

Before proceeding, as it is relevant to the present invention, it is noted that ellipsometer systems generally comprise means for setting a linear or elliptical polarization state, (typically substantially linear).

Continuing, in general, modern practice of ellipsometry typically involves causing a spectroscopic beam of electromagnetic radiation, in a known state of polarization, to interact with a sample system at at least one angle of incidence with respect to a normal to a surface thereof, in a plane of incidence. (Note, a plane of incidence contains both a normal to a surface of an investigated sample system and the locus of said beam of electromagnetic radiation). Changes in the polarization state of said beam of electromagnetic radiation which occur as a result of said interaction with said sample system are indicative of the structure and composition of said sample system. The practice of ellipsometry further involves proposing a mathematical model of the ellipsometer system and the sample system investigated by use thereof, and experimental data is then obtained by application of the ellipsometer system. This is typically followed by application of a square error reducing mathematical regression to the end that parameters in the mathematical model which characterize the sample system are evaluated, such that the obtained experimental data, and values calculated by use of the mathematical model, are essentially the same.

A typical goal in ellipsometry is to obtain, for each wavelength in, and angle of incidence of said beam of electromagnetic radiation caused to interact with a sample system, sample system characterizing PSI and DELTA values, (where PSI is related to a change in a ratio of magnitudes of orthogonal components r_(p)/r_(s) in said beam of electromagnetic radiation, and wherein DELTA is related to a phase shift entered between said orthogonal components r_(p) and r_(s)), caused by interaction with said sample system. The governing equation is:

ρ=rp/rs=Tan(Ψ)exp(iΔ)

As alluded to, the practice of ellipsometry requires that a mathematical model be derived and provided for a sample system and for the ellipsometer system being applied. In that light it must be appreciated that an ellipsometer system which is applied to investigate a sample system is, generally, sequentially comprised of:

-   -   a. a Source of a beam electromagnetic radiation;     -   b. a Polarizer element;     -   c. optionally a compensator element;     -   d. (additional element(s));     -   e. a sample system;     -   f. (additional element(s));     -   g. optionally a compensator element;     -   h. an Analyzer element; and     -   i. a Spectroscopic Detector System.         Each of said components b.-i. must be accurately represented by         a mathematical model of the ellipsometer system along with a         vector which represents a beam of electromagnetic radiation         provided from said source of a beam electromagnetic radiation,         Identified in a. above)

Various conventional ellipsometer configurations provide that a Polarizer, Analyzer and/or Compensator(s) can be rotated during data acquisition, and are describe variously as Rotating Polarizer (RPE), Rotating Analyzer (RAE) and Rotating Compensator (RCE) Ellipsometer Systems. It is noted, that nulling ellipsometers also exist in which elements therein are rotatable in use, rather than rotating. Generally, use of a nulling ellipsometer system involves imposing a substantially linear polarization state on a beam of electromagnetic radiation with a linear polarizer, causing the resulting polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation to interact with a sample system, and then adjusting an analyzer to an azimuthal azimuthal angle which effectively cancels out the beam of electromagnetic radiation which proceeds past the sample system. The azimuthal angle of the analyzer at which nulling occurs provides insight to properties of the sample system.

Continuing, in use, data sets can be obtained with an ellipsometer system configured with a sample system present, sequentially for cases where other sample systems are present, and where an ellipsometer system is configured in a straight-through configuration wherein a beam of electromagnetic radiation is caused to pass straight through the ellipsometer system without interacting with a sample system. Simultaneous mathematical regression utilizing multiple data sets can allow calibration of ellipsometers and evaluation of sample system characterizing PSI and DELTA values over a range of wavelengths. The obtaining of numerous data sets with an ellipsometer system configured with, for instance, a sequence of sample systems present and/or wherein a sequential plurality of polarization states are imposed on an electromagnetic beam caused to interact therewith, can allow system calibration of numerous ellipsometer system variables.

Before disclosing known references, it is noted that computer searching at the PTO Website for Patents and Published Applications containing the words:

-   -   (ellipsometer & bolometer); and     -   (ellipsometer & Golay cell);         produced only one hit, that being Published Application         US2005/0175507 by Tsukruk. Said 507 reference does contain the         words ellipsometry and Golay, but does not describe an         ellipsometer system comprising said elements.

Further, a PTO Website Search for Patents and Published Applications containing the words:

-   -   (ellipsometer & backward wave oscillator);     -   (ellipsometer & Smith-Purcell); and     -   (ellipsometer & free electron laser);         produced only U.S. Pat. No. 5,317,618 to Nakahara et al., which         contains the words ellipsometer & free electron laser, but does         not describe a combination of said elements.

A Patent to Wang et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,914,492 is of interest as it describes free electron lasers used in combination with a Golay cell and Smith-Purcell detectors. However, it does not describe application in ellipsometry or polarimetry.

A Published Application, US2006/0050269 by Brownell describes use of a free electron laser and a Smith-Purcell detector, but not in the context of ellipsometry or polarimetry.

An article titled “Gain of a Smith-Purcell Free Electron Laser”, Andrews et al., Phy. Rev., Vol 7, 070701 (2004), describes use of Smith-Purcell Free Electron Laser.

U.S. Pat. No. 2,985,790 to Kompfner is disclosed as it describes a Backward Wave Oscillator.

U.S. Pat. No. 2,880,355 to Epsztein is disclosed as it describes a Backward Wave Oscillator.

Known References which describe Ellipsometers which operate in the THz frequency range are:

-   “Terahertz Generalized Meuller-matrix Ellipsometery”, Hofmann et     al., Proc. of SPIE, Vol. 6120, pp. 61200D1-61200D10, (2005),     describes applying Thz electromagnetic radiation in generalized     ellipsometry wherein the source of the Thz electromagnetic radiation     is a synchrotron located at BESSY, in Germany. -   “Terahertz magneto-optic generalized ellipsometry using synchrotron     and blackbody radiation”, Hofmann et al., American Inst. of Physics,     77, 063902-1 through 063902-12, (2006), describes applying Thz     electromagnetic radiation in generalized ellipsometry wherein the     source of the Thz electromagnetic radiation is a synchrotron and a     conventional blackbody. The use of an FTIR source and bolometer is     also mentioned. -   “Label-free Amplified Bioaffinity Detection Using Terahertz Wave     Technology”, Menikh et al., Biosensors and Bioelectronics 20,     658-662 (2004), describes use of an unbiased GaAs crystal THz source     of electromagnetic radiation and a ZnTe crystal detector. -   Spectroscopy by Pulsed Terahertz Radiation”, Hango et al., Meas.     Sci. and Technol., 13 (2002), pp 1727-1738, describes applying 30     GHz-10 THz and describes use of Fourier Transform Spectrometers     (FTS) in the Far Infrared (FIR) frequency range with the caution     that such an approach is not easily applied below 1 THz. Said     reference also describes application of Backward Wave Oscillators     (BWO) plus frequency multipliers, with the caution that to cover the     range of 30 GHz to 3 THz typically requires many BWO's and frequency     multipliers to cover said frequency range. This article favors use     of a Femto-sec laser (eg. a mode-locked Ti:saphire laser or Er-doped     fiber laser in combination with a photoconductive antenna made on     low-temperature grown GaAs). -   “Measurement of Complex Optical Constants of a Highly Doped Si Wafer     Using Terahertz Ellipsometry”, Nagashima et al., Applied Phys. Lett.     Vol. 79, No. 24 (10 Dec. 2001). This article describes use of a     mode-locked Ti:saphire laser with a bow-tie antenna and GaAs     detector antenna). -   Published Patent Application No. US2004/0027571 by Luttman mentions     using a THz light Source in an ellipsometer system. -   “Development of Terahertz Ellipsometry and its Application to     Evaluation of Semiconductors”, Nagashima et al., Tech. Meeting on     Light Application and Visual Science, IEEE (2002) proposes a     Terahertz ellipsometer. -   “Terahertz Imaging System Based on a Backward-Wave Oscillator,     Dobroiu et al., Applied Optics, Vol. 43, No 30, (20 Oct. 2004)     describes use of a Terahertz source to provide electromagnetic     radiation.

A Patent to Herzinger et al. U.S. Pat. No. 6,795,184, describes an “Odd-Bounce” system for rotating a polarization state in an electromagnetic beam. Patents disclosed in the Application leading to U.S. Pat. No. 6,795,184 are:

-   Patent to Herzinger, No. 6,137,618 is disclosed as it describes a     Single Brewster Angle Polarizer in the context of multiple     reflecting means, and discloses prior art dual Brewster Angle Single     Reflective Means Polarizer Systems. -   Patent, to Herzinger et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,084,675 describes an     adjustable beam alignment compensator/retarder with application to     spectroscopic ellipsometry. -   U.S. Pat. No. 6,118,537 to Johs et al. describes a multiple Berek     plate optical retarder system. -   U.S. Pat. No. 6,141,102 to Johs et al. describes a single triangular     shaped optical retarder element. -   U.S. Pat. No. 5,946,098 to Johs et al., describes dual tipped wire     grid polarizers in combination with various compensator/retarder     systems. -   U.S. Pat. No. 6,100,981 to Johs et al., describes a dual     horizontally oriented triangular shaped optical retarder. -   U.S. Pat. No. 6,084,674 to Johs et al., describes a parallelogram     shaped optical retarder element. -   U.S. Pat. No. 5,963,325 to Johs et al., describes a dual vertically     oriented triangular shaped optical retarder element. -   U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,450,231 and 7,460,230 to Johs et al. are disclosed     as they describe deviation angle self compensating compensator     systems. -   A Patent to Johs et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,872,630 is disclosed as it     describes an ellipsometer system in which an analyzer and polarizer     are maintained in a fixed in position during data acquisition, while     a compensator is caused to continuously rotate. -   A Patent to Thompson et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,706,212 is also     disclosed as it teaches a mathematical regression based double     Fourier series ellipsometer calibration procedure for application,     primarily, in calibrating ellipsometers system utilized in infrared     wavelength range. Bi-refringent, transmissive window-like     compensators are described as present in the system thereof, and     discussion of correlation of retardations entered by sequentially     adjacent elements which do not rotate with respect to one another     during data acquisition is described therein.

Further Patents disclosed in the 184 Patent are:

-   U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,757,494; and -   5,956,145;     to Green et al., in which are taught a method for extending the     range of Rotating Analyzer/Polarizer ellipsometer systems to allow     measurement of DELTA'S near zero (0.0) and one-hundred-eighty (180)     degrees, and the extension of modulator element ellipsometers to     PSI'S of forty-five (45) degrees. Said Patents describes the     presence of a variable, transmissive, bi-refringent component which     is added, and the application thereof during data acquisition to     enable the identified capability. -   A Patent to He et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,963,327 is disclosed as it     describes an ellipsometer system which enables providing a polarized     beam of electromagnetic radiation at an oblique angle-of-incidence     to a sample system in a small spot area.

Patents of general interest disclosed in the 184 Patent include:

-   Patent to Woollam et al, U.S. Pat. No. 5,373,359, (describes a beam     chopper); -   Patent to Johs et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,666,201; -   Patent to Green et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,521,706; and -   Patent to Johs et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,504,582;     and are disclosed as they pertain to ellipsometer systems. -   A Patent to Coates et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,826,321 is disclosed as     it describes applying a reflected monochromatic beam of plane     polarized electromagnetic radiation at a Brewster angle of incidence     to a sample substrate to determine the thickness of a thin film     thereupon. This Patent also describes calibration utilizing two     sample substrates, which have different depths of surface coating.

Other Patents which describe use of reflected electromagnetic radiation to Investigate sample systems are:

-   U.S. Pat. Nos. RE 34,783, -   4,373,817, -   5,045,704

to Coates; and

-   U.S. Pat. No. 5,452,091

to Johnson.

-   A Patent to Bjork et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,647,207 is disclosed as it     describes an ellipsometer system which has provision for     sequentially, individually positioning a plurality of reflective     polarization state modifiers in a beam of electromagnetic radiation.     U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,210,401; 4,332,476 and 4,355,903 are also     identified as being cited in the 207 Patent. It is noted that     systems as disclosed in these Patents, (particularly in the 476     Patent), which utilize reflection from an element to modify a     polarization state can, if such an element is an essential duplicate     of an investigated sample and is rotated ninety degrees therefrom,     the effect of the polarization state modifying element on the     electromagnetic beam effect is extinguished by the sample. -   A Patent to Mansuripur et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,838,695 is disclosed     as it describes an apparatus for measuring reflectivity. -   Patents to Rosencwaig et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,750,822 and 5,596,406     are also identified as they describe systems which impinge     electromagnetic beams onto sample systems at oblique angles of     incidence. The 406 Patent provides for use of multiple wavelengths     and multiple angles of incidence. For similar reasons U.S. Pat. No.     5,042,951 to Gold et al. is also disclosed.

In addition to the identified Patents, certain Scientific papers were also disclosed in the 184 Patent are:

-   A paper by Johs, titled “Regression Calibration Method for Rotating     Element Ellipsometers”, Thin Solid Films, 234 (1993) is also     disclosed as it describes a mathematical regression based approach     to calibrating ellipsometer systems.

An additional relevant Patent is No. 6,268,917 to Johs. This Patent describes a combined polychromatic electromagnetic radiation beam source comprising beam combiners.

It is also disclosed that the J.A. Woollman Co., Inc. has marketed an IR range Ellipsometer, called the IR-VASE®, for many years. Said instrument provides capability from 10 THz to 150 THz and is a Variable Angle, Rotating Compensator system utilizing a Bomen FTIR Spectrometer. Further, it comprises an FTIR Source, and an Odd-Bounce image rotating system for rotating a polarization state imposed by a wire-grid polarizer. It is noted that as marketed, this system has never provided the capability to reach down to 1 THz, which capability was achieved via research in developing the present invention.

Additional references which describe ellipsometry practiced in the THz range are:

-   “THz Ellipsometry in Theory and Experiment”, Dietz et al. 33rd     International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves and 16th     International Conference on Terahertz Electronics, IRMMW-THz (2008)     describes an experimental ellipsometer for use in the THz frequency     range; -   “Study Terahertz Ellipsometry Setups for Measuring Metals and     Dielectrics Using Free Electron Laser Light Source”, Rudych, 31st     International Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves and 14th     International Conference on Terahertz Electronics, IRMMW-THz (2006)     describes use of a free electron laser to provide THz frequencies; -   “Spectral THz Ellipsometer for the Unambiguous Determination of all     Stokess Parameters”, Holldack et al., 30th International Conference     on Infrared and Millimeter Waves and 13th International Conference     on Terahertz Electronics, IRMMW-THz (2006) describes a concept for     determining all Stokes Parameters; -   “Terahertz Magneto-Optic Generalized Ellipsometry Using Synchrotron     and Blackbody Radiation”, Esquinazi et al., Sci. Instrum., Vol. 7,     No. 6 (2006) describes use of synchrotron generated electromagnetic     radiation in magneto-optic generalized ellipsometry; -   “Terahertz Generalized Mueller-Matrix Ellisometry”, Esquinazi et al.     Proc. Int. Soc. Opt. Eng., Vol. 6120, (2006) describes synchrotron     generated electromagnetic radiation in generalized Mueller Matrix     ellipsometry; -   “THz Time-Domain Magneto-Optic Ellipsometry in Reflection Geometry”,     Kuwata-Gonokami et al., Trends Opt. Photonics Series, Vol.     97, (2004) describes determining a dielectric tensor using THz     frequencies in magneto-optic optical measurements; -   “Terahertz Polarimetry”, Gallot et al., Conf. Lasers Electro-Optics,     CLEO, Vol. 3 (2005) describes determining the polarization state of     a THz wave over a wide range of frequencies; -   “Evalution of Complex Optical Constants of Semiconductor Wafers     using Terahertz Ellipsometry”, Hangyo et al., Trends Opt. Photonics     Series, Vol. 88, (2003) describes combining terahertz ellipsometry     with time domain spectroscopy.

Additional references which describe sources of Terahertz frequency range electromagnetism are:

-   “Improved Performance of Hybrid Electronic Terahertz Generators”,     Hurlbut et al., 33rd International Conference on Infrared and     Millimeter Waves and Terahertz Waves, IRMMW-THz (2008), describes     combining BWO's with frequency multipliers; -   “Terahertz Wave Generation in Orientation-Patterned GaAs Using     Resonantly Enhanced Schemes”, Vodopyanov et al., SPIE-Intl. Soc. for     Opt. Eng. USA, Vol. 6455, (2007), describes application of     Zincblende semiconductors (GaAs, GaP) to produce THz frequencies; -   “Terahertz BWO Spectroscopy of Conductors and Superconductors”,     Gorshunov et al., Quantum Electronics, Vol. 37, No. 10 (October     2007), describes methods for directly measuring dielectric response     spectra of dielectrics, conductors and superconductors using BWO     generated spectrometers; -   “Portable THz Spectrometers”, Kozlov et al., 31st International     Conference on Infrared and Millimeter Waves and 14th International     Conference on Terahertz Electronics, IRMMW-THz (2007), describes a     portable THz spectrometer which operates in the frequency range of     0.1-1 THz; -   “Terahertz Time-Domain Spectrsocopy”, Nishizawa et al., Terahertz     Optoelectronics, Topics Appl. Phys. 97, 203-271 (2005). -   U.S. Pat. No. 7,339,718 to Vodopanov et al., Issued Apr. 3, 2008     describes a method for generating THz radiation comprising     illuminating a semiconductor with an optical pulse train. -   U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,819,423 to Stehle et al., Issued Nov. 16, 2004 and     5,317,618 Issued Jan. 25, 2005 are also identified as they mention     application of THz frequencies in an ellipsometer system.

It is noted that the Search Report for a co-pending PCT Application, PCT/US09/05346, was recently received. It identified the following references: U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,795,184; 7,274,450 and 6,798,511; and Published Applications Nos. US2004/0228371; US2007/0252992; US2006/0289761; US2007/0278407; US2007/0097373. Also identified were: a Ph.D. dissertation by Duerr, Erik Kurt, titled “Distributed Photomixers”, Mass. Inst. Tech., September 2002; and article titled “Hole Diffusion Profile in a P-P+ Slicon Homojunction Determined by Terahertz and Midinfrared Spectroscopic Ellipsometry”, Hofmann et al., App. Phys. Lett., 95 032102 (2009).

The identified references, application Ser. No. 12/456,791, Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/208,735 Serial and No. 61/281,905, are all incorporated by reference into this Specification.

Even in view of relevant prior art, there remains need for an ellipsometer or polarimeter system for application in the Terahertz region, preferably in combination with a convenient approach to providing linearly polarized beams of electromagnetic radiation in which the azimuthal angle of the linear polarization can be controlled.

DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is a practical ellipsometer or polarimeter system for application in the range of frequencies between 300 GHz or below and proceeding well into, and preferably through the Infrared frequency range. The prior art demonstrates that it is not unknown to propose, or provide a system for, and practice of ellipsometry at Terahertz (THz) frequencies, however, a specific embodiment than makes such possible and which is suitable for general application in Universities and industry etc., has not been previously disclosed. To the Applicant's knowledge, there are no commercially available THz ellipsometers or polarimeters available in the market place. This is even more so the case where the ellipsometer or polarimeter also provides Infrared (IR) frequency capability.

While Synchrotrons have been used to provide THz frequency band electromagnetic radiation in ellipsometers, it is not remotely possible to provide a Synchrotron at every location whereat it is desired to practice THz ellipsometry. The present invention provides combination of many elements, which results in a novel, practical system for general application in the market place.

Before proceeding, it is of benefit to define some terminology. First, a generally accepted range for what constitutes a Terahertz range of frequencies is from 3×10¹¹ (ie. 300 GHz), to 1.3×10¹² (ie. 1.3 Thz), Hertz. The Terahertz range is sandwiched between the microwave, (the high end of which has a wavelength of 1 millimeter), and the far-infrared, (the long-wavelength edge of which is 100 micrometers), ranges of wavelengths/frequencies.

Next, it is noted that a number of sources of Terahertz (THz) electromagnetic radiation exit. For instance, a Smith-Purcell cell is a device which directs an energetic beam of electrons very close to a ruled surface of a diffraction grating. The effect on the trajectory of the beam is negligible, but a result is that Cherenkov radiation in the Terahertz frequency range can be created, where the phase velocity of the electromagnetic radiation is altered by the periodic grating. Another source of Terahertz radiation is a Free Electron Laser. In this source a beam of electrons is accelerated to relativistic speed and caused to pass through a periodic transverse magnetic field. The array of magnets is sometimes called an undulator or “wiggler” as it causes the electrons to form a sinusoidal path. The acceleration of the electrons causes release of photons, which is “synchrotron radiation”. Further, the electron motion is in phase with the field of said released electromagnetic radiation, and therefore the fields add coherently. Instabilities in the electron beam resulting from interactions of the oscillations in the undulators lead to emission of electromagnetic radiation, wherein electrons radiate independently. The wavelength of the emitted electromagnetic radiation from the electrons can be adjusted by adjusting the energy of the electron beam and/or magnetic field strength of the undulators, to be in the Terahertz range. Another source of Terahertz frequencies is a Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO), which is a vacuum tube system comprising an electron gun that generates an electron beam and causes it to interact with an electromagnetic wave traveling in a direction opposite to that of ejected electrons such that THz frequency oscillations are sustained by interaction between the propagating traveling wave backwards against the electron beam.

It is also disclosed that numerous detectors exist for monitoring Terahertz range electromagnetic radiation. One example is a Golay cell which operates by converting a temperature change resulting from electromagnetic radiation impinging onto material, into a measurable signal. Generally, when electromagnetic radiation is caused to impinge on a blackened material it heats a gas, (eg. Xenon) in an first chamber of an enclosure, and that causes a distortable reflecting diaphram/film adjacent to said first chamber to change shape. In a second chamber, separated from the first by said diaphram/film an electromagnetic beam is caused to reflect from the film and into a photocell, which in turn converts the received electromagnetic radiation into an electrical signal. A Bolometer is another detector of monitoring Terahertz range electromagnetic radiation, but operates by using the effect of a changing electric resistance caused by electromagnetic radiation impinging onto a blackened metal.

It is also noted that there are Solid State sources and detectors of Terahertz frequency electromagnetic radiation. For instance, an identified reference by Nagashima et al. discloses that THz pulses can be generated by a bow-tie photoconductive radiation antenna excited by a mode-locked Ti-saphire laser with 80 Fs time width pulses, and a detection antenna can be formed from a dipole-type photoconductive antenna with a 5 micron gap fabricated on thin film LT-GaAs. Further, it is known that a company named AB Millimeter in Paris France, supplies a system that covers the entire range from 8 GHz to 1000 GHz with solid state source and detector devices.

With the above insight, it is disclosed that application Ser. No. 12/456,791 disclosed a system which comprises an ellipsometer or polarimeter system which comprises a selection from the group consisting of:

-   -   a1) a source of electromagnetic radiation in functional         combination with a polarization state generator that provides         substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300         GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz;     -   a2) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source of         electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized         output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and         extending higher than at least 1 THz;     -   b) a sample support;     -   c) at least one detector of electromagnetic radiation, said at         least one detector being capable of detecting electromagnetic         radiation in a range of between 300 GHz or lower and extending         higher than at least 1 THz.         Said ellipsometer or polarizer system further comprises, between         said THz source and said detector, at least one selection from         the group:     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said THz         source and said sample support;     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample         support and said detector;     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said         source and detector; and     -   an electro, acousto or opto-modulator;         the purpose thereof being to modulate a polarization state         during a data acquisition procedure.

It is noted that the polarization state generator comprising a THz source of electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz, utilizes natural polarization provided by the THz source and does not require use of a separate polarizer; whereas said source of electromagnetic radiation in functional combination with a polarization state generator that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz, typically comprises a separate polarizer.

Continuing, the THz source of electromagnetic radiation can comprise at least one selection from the group consisting of:

-   -   a backward wave oscillator;     -   a Smith-Purcell cell;     -   a free electron laser; and     -   a solid state source device;         and preferably further comprises a frequency multiplier means         after said THz source of electromagnetic radiation, which         frequency multiplier receives electromagnetic radiation output         from said THz source, and provides harmonics of said         electromagnetic radiation in a range of between said source         output fundamental and about 1.6 THz.

Further, the ellipsometer or polarimeter system preferably comprises at least one odd-bounce polarization state rotation system present between:

-   -   said THz source of electromagnetic radiation; and     -   said detector;         and comprises a method of its application in ellipsometer and         polarimeter and the like systems. This is beneficial in that it         eliminates the need to rotate an ellipsometer system Polarizer         to rotate a polarization state provided by the source of         electromagnetic radiation, optionally in combination with a         polarization state generator. The odd bounce optical image         rotating system is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,795,184 to         Herzinger et al. As described in said 184 Patent said odd bounce         serves optical image rotating system serves to rotate the         azimuthal angle of a linearly, or partially linearly polarized,         (ie. substantially polarized), beam of electromagnetic radiation         without entering significant deviation or displacement of the         propagation direction locus thereof, or significantly altering         the polarization state thereof, (ie. it does not cause         significant shifting of energy from a major intensity orthogonal         component into the other orthogonal component, or the shifting         of phase angle therebetween). The odd bounce optical image         rotating system can be described as a sequence of an odd number         of reflective elements oriented in a manner which causes an         entering beam of electromagnetic radiation to reflect from a         first thereof onto the second thereof and from the second         thereof onto the third thereof etc. For a three (3) reflective         element odd bounce optical image rotating element system, said         three reflections cause a beam of electromagnetic radiation to         emerge from the third reflective element with a rotated linear         or partially linear polarization azimuthal angle and in a         direction which is not significantly deviated or displaced from         the locus of the input beam, even when the odd bounce optical         image rotating system is caused to stepwise or continuously         rotate about an axis coincident with the locus of the beam of         electromagnetic radiation. The same is generally true for an odd         bounce optical image rotating element system comprising any odd         number, (eg. 3, 5, 7 etc.) of reflective elements. It is noted         that the greater the number of reflective elements the more         normal the angle of incidence a beam can make thereto, and         higher angles of incidence cause less aberration effects. Also,         where more than three reflection elements are present certain         non-idealities caused by the reflection elements can be canceled         by utilizing non-coincident coordinate systems for said         reflections. A trade-off, however, is that the greater the         number of reflective elements present, the more difficult it is         to align the system to avoid said beam deviation and         displacement.

Coupling the odd bounce optical image rotating system with a substantially linear polarizing element, (which can comprise a source of unpolarized electromagnetic radiation and a polarizer, or can comprise a source that provides polarized electromagnetic radiation at its output), provides a polarizer system in which the polarizing element can remain stationary while the azimuthal angle of the polarized beam of electromagnetism exiting therefrom, (as viewed from a position along the locus of an electromagnetic beam caused to enter thereto), is rotated.

For general insight, it is also noted that a single three-hundred-sixty (360) degree rotation of an odd bounce optical image rotating element system about an axis coincident with a beam of electromagnetic radiation which functionally passes therethrough, causes seven-hundred-twenty (720) degrees of rotation of the major intensity orthogonal component. This is not of any critical consequence, but is mentioned as it must be taken into account during practice of said methodology.

The detector of electromagnetic radiation in a range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than 1 THz, can be a selection from the group consisting of:

-   -   a Golay cell;     -   a bolometer     -   a solid state detector.

Further, said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprises an FTIR source and a detector for detecting said FTIR frequency output in a frequency range above about 1 THz, and means for selecting between:

-   -   said THz source of electromagnetic radiation and optional         frequency multiplier that provides THz frequency output in a         range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at         least 1 THz; and     -   said FTIR source that provides output in an IR frequency range         above about 1 THz.

The detector for detecting said FTIR frequency output in a frequency range above about 1 THz, and in which said detector of electromagnetic radiation in a range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz, are each independently selected from the group:

-   -   a Golay cell;     -   a bolometer; and     -   a solid state detector.

As mentioned, in a preferred embodiment, the ellipsometer or polarimeter system has output from said THz source, preferably with a frequency multiplier in functional combination, so that it overlaps output from said FTIR source in frequency, between at least 1.0 to 1.4 THz. And preferably said sources are calibrated such that substantially the same results, (eg. ellipsometric PSI and/or DELTA), are achieved by analyzing output from either of the selected detectors in the frequency range of between about 1.0 to 1.4 THz.

In more detail, a previously disclosed ellipsometer or polarimeter system comprises:

a selection from the group consisting of:

-   -   a1) an FTIR source of electromagnetic radiation in functional         combination with a polarization state generator, that provides         substantially polarized output in a frequency range above about         1 THz; and     -   a2) a polarization state generator comprising an FTIR source of         electromagnetic radiation which provides substantially polarized         output in a frequency range above about 1 THz;         and a selection from the group consisting of:     -   a3) a THz source of electromagnetic radiation in functional         combination with a polarization state generator, that provides         substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300         GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz;     -   a4) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source of         electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized         output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and         extending higher than at least 1 THz;     -   wherein said THz source of electromagnetic radiation comprises         at least one selection from the group consisting of:         -   a backward wave oscillator;         -   a Smith-Purcell cell;         -   a free electron laser; and         -   a solid state device;     -   preferably in functional combination with a frequency multiplier         for providing harmonics of a fundamental output frequency that         provides substantially polarized frequency output in a frequency         range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at         least 1 THz.         Further, said ellipsometer or polarimeter comprises means for         selecting between said THz and FTIR sources.     -   Said ellipsometer or polarimeter further comprises:     -   b) a sample support;     -   c) a detector system of electromagnetic radiation comprising at         least one selection from the group consisting of:         -   a Golay cell detector;         -   a bolometer detector;         -   a solid state source device.             Said preferred ellipsometer or polarization system             embodiment further comprises at least one odd-bounce             polarization state rotation system present between:     -   said selected source; and     -   said selected detector.         And, said ellipsometer system further comprises, between said         selected source and said selected detector, at least one         selection from the group:     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said THz         source and said sample support;     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample         support and said detector;     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said         source and detector; and     -   an electro, acousto or opto-modulator.

In use a selected functional combination of selected source and selected detector is applied to cause electromagnetic radiation to impinge on and interact with a sample on said sample support, then enter said selected detector, to the end that said detector produces an output.

Again, said preferred embodiment provides that the output from the functional combination of said selected THz source and preferably a frequency multiplier, and that from said FTIR source overlap in frequency between at least 1.0 to 1.4 THz such that substantially the same results, (eg. ellipsometric PSI and/or DELTA), are achieved by analyzing output from either of the selected detectors in the frequency range of between about 1.0 to 1.4 THz.

A preferred system also comprises a chopper for chopping the electromagnetic beam which interacts with the sample, This enables noise reduction, particularly where data is obtained with the system located in a non-darkened room, such that spurious electromagnetic radiation is present.

A method of characterizing a sample comprises the steps of:

A) providing an ellipsometer or polarimeter as described above;

B) selecting a source and detector;

C) applying said selected source to cause substantially polarized electromagnetic radiation to impinge on and interact with said sample on said sample support, then proceed to and enter said selected detector, to the end that said detector provides output.

Said method also preferably involves chopping the substantially polarized electromagnetic radiation which is caused to impinge on and interact with said sample on said sample support, and which then proceeds to and enters said selected detector, to the end that said detector provides output based substantially only on the chopped beam content.

And, said method can further comprise performing at least one selection from the group consisting of:

-   -   storing at least some output provided by said detector in         machine readable media;     -   analyzing at least some of the output provided by said detector         and storing at least some of the results of said analysis in         machine readable media;     -   displaying at least some output provided by said detector by         electronic and/or non-electronic means;     -   analyzing at least some of the output provided by said detector         and displaying at least some of the results of said analysis by         electronic and/or non-electronic means;     -   causing at least some output provided by said detector to         produce a signal which is applied to provide a concrete and         tangible result;     -   analyzing at least some of the output provided by said detector         and causing at least some thereof to produce a signal which is         applied to provide a concrete and tangible result.

Said method can further comprise the step of continuously or step-wise rotating at least one of the at least one odd-bounce polarization state rotation system present between said source and detector, or operating a present electro, acousto or opto-modulator, during data acquisition.

The benefit is that, especially in ellipsometer/polarimeter etc. systems which operate in the IR range of wavelengths and below, it can be difficult to cause rotation of a linear polarizer, (or analyzer), without adversely causing deviation of a beam of electromagnetic radiation caused to pass therethrough, or causing mis-coordination of multiple elements thereof, (ie. multiple tipped wire linear polarizer as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,946,098). Said system allows setting fixed substantially linear polarizer, and analyzer azimuthal orientations, and using the odd bounce optical image rotating element instead, to effect different electromagnetic beam azimuthal rotation orientations.

It is also noted that various selected combinations of elements that comprise an ellipsometer or polarimeter, such as a specific selection from:

-   -   a backward wave oscillator;     -   a Smith-Purcell cell;     -   a free electron laser; and     -   a solid state device;     -   preferably in functional combination with a frequency multiplier         for providing harmonics of a fundamental output frequency that         provides substantially polarized frequency output in a frequency         range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at         least 1 THz;

and an FTIR Source;

in combination with selection from various types of Polarizers and Analyzers and/or Compensators, as well as the motion of each (ie. stationary, rotatable or rotating), and beam chopper frequency during data acquisition; in further functional combination with a specific selection from:

-   -   a Golay cell detector;     -   a bolometer detector;     -   a solid state source device;         for each of the THz and IR ranges of operation, can provide         different quality or, for instance, ellipsometric PSI or DELTA         results, as quantified by measured Noise/Signal ratios, and         extent of wavelength range. As regards the later point, it is         noted that it can be advantageous to provide two THz sources         which provide different wavelength output and combine their         outputs.

At the time of this submittal it is believed that a preferred embodiment makes use of a backward wave oscillator (BWO) in combination with a multiplier that provides x1, x2 x3 x6 and x9 capability, in functional combination with Golay cell or bolometer, provides good results in the range of from about 0.12-1.5 THz. Further, a conventional FTIR Source as used in a J.A. Woollam Co. IR-VASE®, to provide 10-150 THz capability, has been shown capable of providing output down to about 1.0 Thz. This beneficially allows an overlap between the THz and IR sources between about 1.0 and 1.4 Thz, which can be used for verification of results separately obtained using the THz and IR sources. In addition, it can be advantageous to cool a detector, (eg. by use of liquid helium), and to adjust beam chopper rate, (eg. between about 12-50 Hz), differently for different source and detector combinations.

It is further believed that an ellipsometer or polarimeter system which comprises:

-   -   a2) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source of         electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized         output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and         extending higher than at least 1 THz; and         thereafter comprises at least one odd bounce optical image         rotating system which comprises:     -   an odd number of at least three reflective elements oriented         such that a beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by said         source of electromagnetic radiation interacts with each of said         at least three reflective elements of said at least one odd         bounce optical image rotating system and exits therefrom along a         non-deviated non-displaced trajectory, said beam of         electromagnetic radiation also interacting with a sample system         placed on said stage for supporting a sample system, and said         analyzer before entering said detector;         is definitely new and Patentable; particularly when it further         comprises at least two rotating elements, each thereof being         selected from the group consisting of:     -   rotating polarizer;     -   rotating compensator; and     -   rotating analyzer.

In addition, when the methodology which involves which the step of providing an ellipsometer or polarimeter system involves the selection of:

-   -   a2) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source of         electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized         output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and         extending higher than at least 1 THz; and         providing at least one odd bounce optical image rotating system         which comprises:     -   an odd number of at least three reflective elements oriented         such that a beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by said         source of electromagnetic radiation interacts with each of said         at least three reflective elements of said at least one odd         bounce optical image rotating system and exits therefrom along a         non-deviated non-displaced trajectory, said beam of         electromagnetic radiation also interacting with a sample system         placed on said stage for supporting a sample system, and said         analyzer before entering said detectors;         is definitely new and Patentable.         This is the case wherein during data collection said odd-bounce         optical image rotating system is rotated as a selection from the         group consisting of:     -   step-wise; and     -   continuously rotated.         Additional basis of Patentability is more particularly provided         when the system comprises at least two rotating elements, each         thereof being selected from the group consisting of:     -   rotating polarizer;     -   rotating compensator;     -   rotating analyzer; and     -   said odd-bounce optical image rotating system;         and wherein said selected two rotating elements are both         continuously rotated during data acquisition.

It is also presented that an ellipsometer or polarimeter system which operates in the THz range, and its method of use, which ellipsometer or polarimeter comprises a chopper to chop the electromagnetic beam and provide substantially only the chopped electromagnetic beam to the detector, and which is in functional combination with at least two rotating elements, each thereof being selected from the group consisting of:

-   -   rotating polarizer;     -   rotating compensator;     -   rotating analyzer; and     -   odd bounce optical image rotating system;         which are caused to rotate during data collection; is believed         to be new, novel and non-obvious. This is especially the case         where said THz range ellipsometer or polarimeter system         comprises at least one continuously rotating odd bounce optical         image rotating system comprising an odd number of at least three         reflective elements oriented such that a beam of electromagnetic         radiation provided by said source of electromagnetic radiation         interacts with each of said at least three reflective elements         of said at least one odd bounce optical image rotating system         and exits therefrom along a non-deviated non-displaced         trajectory, said beam of electromagnetic radiation also         interacting with a sample system placed on said stage for         supporting a sample system, and said analyzer before entering         said detector.

Continuing, the foregoing was substantially disclosed in Co-Pending Pending application Ser. No. 12/456,791 Filed Jun. 23, 2009. In the following, variations on the foregoing, substantially as disclosed in Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/281,905 Filed Nov. 22, 2009, are discussed.

Much as in the foregoing, a prepresent invention ellipsometer or polarimeter system comprises:

-   -   a) a source selected from the group consisting of:         -   a1) an FTIR source (S2) of electromagnetic radiation in             functional combination with a polarization state generator,             that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency             range above about 1 THz; and         -   a2) a polarization state generator comprising an FTIR source             (S2) of electromagnetic radiation which provides             substantially polarized output in a frequency range above             about 1 THz.             One difference between that disclosed above, and what is now             disclosed, is that the presently disclosed system provides             that said polarization state generator is selected from the             group consisting of:     -   a21) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded by         an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system; and     -   a22) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded by a         polarization state generator entry polarizer.

As in the foregoing, a present invention ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprises:

-   -   and a source selected from the group consisting of:         -   a3) a THz source (S1) of electromagnetic radiation in             functional combination with a polarization state generator,             that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency             range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at             least 1 THz.     -   Another difference between what was disclosed above and what is         now disclosed is that the presently disclosed system provides         that said polarization state generator is selected from the         group consisting of:         -   a4) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source             (S1) of electromagnetic radiation that provides             substantially polarized output in a frequency range between             300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz,             wherein said polarization state generator is selected from             the group consisting of:             -   a41) a polarization state generator exit polarizer                 preceded by an odd-bounce polarization state rotation                 system; and             -   a42) a polarization state generator exit polarizer                 preceded by a polarization state generator entry                 polarizer.

As in the foregoing disclosure,

-   -   said THz source (S1) of electromagnetic radiation comprising at         least one selection from the group consisting of:         -   a backward wave oscillator (BWO);         -   a Smith-Purcell cell (SP); and         -   a free electron laser (FE);     -   optionally in functional combination with a frequency         multiplier (M) for providing harmonics of a fundamental output         frequency that provides substantially polarized frequency output         in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending         higher than at least 1 THz, and     -   said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising means         for selecting between said THz (S1) and FTIR (S2) sources.

This is followed by:

-   -   b) a sample (S) support;     -   c) a detector system (D1) (D2) (D3) of electromagnetic radiation         comprising at least one selection from the group consisting of:         -   a golay cell (GC) detector; and         -   a bolometer (BOL) detector.             And said ellipsometer or polarimeter system again further             comprises, between said selected source and said selected             detector, at least one selection from the group:     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer (P) between said         source (S1) (S2) and said sample (S) support;     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer (A) between said         sample support (S) and said detector (GC) (BOL); and     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator (C) (C′) between         said source (S) and detector (GC) (BOL).         In use a selected functional combination of selected source,         optional polarization state generator, and detector is applied         to cause electromagnetic radiation to pass impinge on and         interact with a sample on said sample support (S), then enter         said selected detector (D1) (D2) (D3), to the end that said         detector produces an output.

A specific presently disclosed invention is found where the A2 polarization state generator comprises an FTIR source (S2), and the A4 polarization state generator comprises a THz source (S1), wherein a22 and a42 are further elected.

Another presently disclosed invention is found where the A2 polarization state generator comprises an FTIR source (S2), and the A4 polarization state generator comprises a THz source (S1), wherein a21 and a41 are further elected.

Another presently disclosed invention is found where the A2 polarization state generator comprises an FTIR source (S2), and the A4 polarization state generator comprises a THz source (S1), wherein a21 and a42 are further elected.

Another presently disclosed invention is found where the A2 polarization state generator comprises an FTIR source (S2), and the A4 polarization state generator comprises a THz source (S1), wherein a22 and a41 are further elected.

A method of characterizing a sample comprising the steps of:

A) providing an ellipsometer or polarimeter system as just disclosed;

B) selecting a source and detector and polarization state generator;

C) applying said selected source to cause substantially polarized electromagnetic radiation to impinge on and interact with said sample (S) on said sample support, then proceed to and enter said selected detector, to the end that said detector provides output;

said method further comprising performing at least one selection from the group consisting of:

-   -   storing at least some output provided by said detector in         machine readable media;     -   analyzing at least some of the output provided by said detector         and storing at least some of the results of said analysis in         machine readable media;     -   displaying at least some output provided by said detector by         electronic and/or non-electronic means;     -   analyzing at least some of the output provided by said detector         and displaying at least some of the results of said analysis by         electronic and/or non-electronic means;     -   causing at least some output provided by said detector to         produce a signal which is applied to provide a concrete and         tangible result;     -   analyzing at least some of the output provided by said detector         and causing at least some thereof to produce a signal which is         applied to provide a concrete and tangible result.

Another recitation of a presently disclosed invention is that it is an ellipsometer or polarimeter system comprising:

-   -   a) a source of electromagnetic radiation that provides at least         partially polarized output in a frequency range between 1.1 THz         or lower and extending to 1.4 THZ or higher; and     -   b) a polarization state generator consisting of a series         combination of a exit polarization state generator polarizer         preceded by a selection from the group consisting of:         -   an entry polarization state generator polarizer; and         -   an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system.             This is followed by:     -   c) a sample support; and     -   d) at least one detector of electromagnetic radiation, said at         least one detector being capable of detecting electromagnetic         radiation in a range of between 300 GHz or lower and extending         up at least 1.4 THZ.         Between said source and said detector, there is also present at         least one selection from the group:     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said THZ         source and said sample support;     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample         support and said detector;     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said         source and detector;         in addition to said polarization state generator components.

It is noted that the polarization state generator characterized by a selected odd-bounce polarization state rotation system followed by said polarization state generator exit polarizer operates by the odd-bounce polarization state generator receiving an at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from the source thereof, rotating the polarization state of said at least partially polarized beam and passing it through said polarization state exit polarizer which serves to improve the purity of the polarization state exiting therefrom.

It is also noted that the polarization state generator is characterized by a polarization state generator entry polarizer followed by said polarization state generator exit polarizer operates by the polarization state generator entry polarizer receiving an at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from the source thereof and then passing it through said polarization state exit polarizer. Said polarization state generator entry polarizer serves to enable avoiding a condition wherein an effective azimuth of the at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by the source thereof, and that of the polarization state generator exit polarizer present at essentially 90 degrees with respect to one another thereby preventing the at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from progressing beyond the polarization state generator exit polarizer.

Another recitation of a present invention ellipsometer or polarimeter system provides that it comprise:

-   -   a) a THZ source of electromagnetic radiation that provides at         least partially polarized output in a frequency range between         300 GHz or lower and extending to 1.1 THZ or higher; and     -   b) a polarization state generator consisting of a series         combination of a exit polarization state generator polarizer         preceded by a selection from the group consisting of:         -   an entry polarization state generator polarizer; and         -   an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system.             Said elements are followed by:     -   c) a sample support; and     -   d) at least one detector of electromagnetic radiation, said at         least one detector being capable of detecting electromagnetic         radiation in a range of between 300 GHz or lower and extending         up at least 1.1 THZ.         In addition to said polarization state generator components,         said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprises,         between said source and said detector, at least one selection         from the group:     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said         source and said sample support;     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample         support and said detector;     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said         source and detector.

Another recitation of a present invention ellipsometer or polarimeter system provides that it comprise:

-   -   a) an FTIR source of electromagnetic radiation that provides at         least partially polarized output in a frequency range between         1.1 THz or lower and extending to 1.4 THZ or higher:     -   b) a polarization state generator consisting of a series         combination of a exit polarization state generator polarizer         preceded by a selection from the group consisting of:         -   an entry polarization state generator polarizer; and         -   an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system.             Said ellipsometer or polarimeter system then further             comprises:     -   c) a sample support; and     -   d) at least one detector of electromagnetic radiation, said at         least one detector being capable of detecting electromagnetic         radiation in a range of between 1.1 THz or lower and extending         up at least 1.4 THZ.         In addition to said polarization state generator components,         said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprises,         between said source and said detector, at least one selection         from the group:     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said THZ         source and said sample support;     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample         support and said detector;     -   a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said         source and detector.

Finally, in view of recent case law, it is specifically disclosed that a present invention system preferably comprises a Computer System which controls element motion, (eg. stepwise or continuous rotation of a Polarizer (P) and/or Compensator (C, C′) and/or Analyzer (A) and/or Odd Bounce Image Rotating System (OB); operation of a Chopper (CH); positioning of a Sample (S); selection of a Source (S1, S2); selection of a Detector (D1, D2, D3); and operation of a Source (S1, S2, S3) and/or Detector (D1, D2, D3). Further, a present invention system comprises a Computer System (CMP) which serves to analyze data provided by a Detector (D1, D2, D3) and Display said data or results of analysis thereof. That is, the present invention can be considered to be a Computer System (CMP) which comprises an Ellipsometer or Polarimeter, which Computer System (CMP) controls operation of elements of said Ellipsometer or Polarimeter to the end that Sample characterizing Data is developed, as well as analysis of said data performed and presentation of said data, or results of analysis thereof.

The present invention will be better understood by reference to the Detailed Description Section of this Specification, in combination with the Drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1 a-1 c show demonstrative configurations for a present invention ellipsometer or polarimeter system.

FIG. 1 d shows an alternative polarization state generator involving a modulator.

FIGS. 1 e-1 g show systems similar to those in FIGS. 1 a-1 c, with the relative positions of the Odd Bounce image rotation system and Polarizer reversed.

FIG. 1 h indicate that the Odd Bounce image rotation system Polarizer reversed are controlled in synchrony.

FIGS. 1 i-1 k are similar to FIGS. 1 e-1 g, but with the Odd Bounce image rotation system replaced with a second Polarizer.

FIGS. 2 a-2 d show various aspects of Therahertz frequency Sources.

FIGS. 2 e-2 g show a demonstrative detectors of Terahertz frequencies.

FIG. 3 a demonstrates an Odd Bounce image rotating system comprising three (3) reflecting elements.

FIG. 3 b demonstrates an Odd Bounce image rotating system comprising five (5) reflecting elements.

FIG. 4 demonstrates a preferred compensator (C) (C′) C″) which has been used in a rotating compensator ellipsometer system for application in the IR range of wavelengths.

FIG. 5 a demonstrates a combined Non-Brewster Angle and Brewster Angle Polarizer system.

FIG. 5 b demonstrates a dual tipped wire grid polarizer system.

FIG. 6 demonstrates data which can be achieved by application of the Present Invention, including in an overlap frequency range between about 1.0 and 1.4 THz.

FIG. 7 demonstrates displaying data obtained by practice of the present invention using a computer.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Turning now to the Drawings, FIGS. 1 a, 1 b and 1 c show various approaches to providing a Present Invention System. FIG. 1 a shows Three Sources (S1) (S2) S3), which can each be a backward wave oscillator or a Smith-Purcell cell or a free electron laser or a solid state device. Also demonstrated are Beam Combiners (BC1) (BC2) (BC3) which serve to direct electromagnetic radiation from Sources (S1) (S2) S3), respectively, toward a Sample (S), via optional Polarizer (P), (the natural source polarization can suffice), Odd Bounce Image Rotating System (OB) and Compensator (C). Said optional (P) (OB) (C) components are shown as typically, in combination, being termed a Conventional Polarization State Generator (CPSG) and are included to polarize a beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by a Source (S1) (S2) S3). As regards the Present Invention, however, it is possible that a selected Source (S1) (S2) S3) can provide a beam of electromagnetic radiation which is already polarized, therefore, in this Specification it is to be understood that it is within the definition of “Polarization State Generator (PSG)” that it comprise the Source (S1) (S2) S3) with or without the presence of Conventional Polarization State Generator (CPSG) components. FIG. 1 a also shows that optional (OB′) (C′) and (P) components between the Sample (S) and a Detector (D1) D2). Note that Detectors (D1) and (D2) have electromagnetic radiation directed thereinto by Beam Splitters/Directors. In use Source (S1) (S2) and (S3) can be energized or not so that a beam of electromagnetic radiation progressing toward the Sample (S) comprises various ranges of wavelengths. For instance, Source (S1) can be selected to provide Terahertz (Thz) frequencies, and Source (S2) selected to provide Infrared (IR) frequencies, and during use one or the other can be energized so that only (THz) or (IR) wavelengths are provided, or both can be energized to provide a broad combined range of wavelengths, preferable with an overlap range of between about 1.0 Thz, and 1.4 Thz or higher, frequency. The same general description of FIG. 1 a applies to FIGS. 1 b and 1 c, with the exception that the Sources and Detectors are shown as configured differently. In FIG. 1 b the Sources (S1) (S2) (S3) and Detectors (D1) (D2) (D3) are simply sequentially slid into position. In FIG. 1 c, Input Beam Reflecting Means (BRI) and Output Beam Reflecting Means (BRO) are shown as being rotatable to selectively direct electromagnetic radiation from one source or another toward the Sample (S). The configurations shown in FIGS. 1 a-1 c are not to be considered limiting, but rather are demonstrative. For instance, it is possible to choose a FIG. 1 a Source selection approach, and a FIG. 1 b or 1 c Detector selection arrangement etc. And it is within the scope of the Present Invention to provide only one Source, (ie. a Therahertz frequency providing system), while providing a selection between two Detectors (eg. a Golay cell or Bolometer).

It is also noted that the configuration in FIG. 1 a can be operated with a plurality of Sources simultaneously turned on to provide an electromagnetic beam which contains a broad frequency range. Especially, but not exclusively, in such a configuration it is beneficial to adjust said sources providing output in the range of 1.0 to 1.4 THz such that substantially the same results, (eg. ellipsometric PSI and/or DELTA), are achieved by analyzing output from any of the selected detectors in the frequency range of between about 1.0 to 1.4 THz. This not only provides continuity between the lower and upper extents of the frequency range, but provides an approach to assuring accuracy of results. If the same results are achieved using very different sources of electromagnetic radiation, both can be considered to very likely enabling acquisition of good data.

FIG. 1 d is included to disclose that an Alternative Polarization State Generator (APSG) configuration involving an optional Polarizer (P) and a Modulator (MOD), can be applied in the present invention. Such an (APSG) configuration can be employed instead of, or in addition to components in the Conventional Polarization State Generator (CPSG) shown in FIGS. 1 a-1 c. Also indicated is an Alternative Polarization State Detector Generator (APSD) configuration including a Modulator (MOD′). Again such an (APSD) configuration can be employed instead of, or in addition to the Conventional Polarization State Detector (CPSD) shown in FIGS. 1 a-1 c. It is noted that various types of Modulators exist, including those which apply an electric signal, or an acoustic signal or an optical signal to effect modulation of a polarization state.

Also shown in FIGS. 1 a-1 d is a Chopper (CH). This allows the beam to be “chopped” at a selected frequency so that it can be monitored separate from non-chopped background electromagnetic radiation. This enables obtaining data which is not overwhelmed by noise, in a non-darkened room. The Chopper (CH) is shown a being located differently in each of FIGS. 1 a-1 d. This is to indicate that there is no required position, with the only functional requirement being that the beam be chopped thereby. The system which comprises a Chopper (CH) will provide substantially only the chopped electromagnetic beam to the Detector (D1) (D2) D3).

FIG. 1 e shows a system substantially similar to that in FIG. 1 a, but note that the Odd Bounce Image Rotating System (OB) precedes the Polarizer (P) in the Polarization State Generator (PSG). FIG. 1 h also indicates that both the Odd Bounce Image Rotating System (OB) and Polarizer (P) are fitted with means, (eg. steppe motors), for effecting synchronized rotation of (MOB) and (MOP). In use a natural polarization state from the Source (S1) is azimuthally rotated by the Odd Bounce Image Rotating System (OB) and then passes through the Polarizer (P). In this system the Polarizer (P) is rotated azimuthally to correspond to the azimuthal position of the polarization in the electromagnetic beam as it exits the Odd Bounce Image Rotating System (OB). This approach has been found to work very well. The Odd Bounce Image Rotating System (OB) is substantially responsible for setting the azimuthal orientation of the beam polarization, and the Polarizer (P) “cleans-up” polarization of the beam exiting therefrom. FIGS. 1 f and 1 g are again very similar to FIGS. 1 b and 1 c, but with a similar reversal of position of the Odd Bounce Image Rotating System (OB) and the Polarizer, for the same purpose as indicated with respect to FIGS. 1 e and 1 a.

FIGS. 1 i-1 k show similar configurations to FIGS. 1 e-1 g, but note that a second Polarizer (P′) replaces the Odd Bounce Image Rotating Systems (OB) in FIGS. 1 e-1 g. In this case the second Polarizer (P′) serves to prevent Polarizer (P) being oriented so that it is at 90 degrees with respect to the natural polarization emerging from the Source (1) (S2) (S3), therefore blocking its transmission therethrough. By adding Polarizer (P′) it is possible to set Polarizer (P) at any azimuthal orientation and still achieve electromagnetic beam transmission therethrough.

Turning now to FIGS. 2 a-2 d, insight to the operation of various Terahertz sources is provided. FIG. 2 a shows that a Smith-Purcell (SP) cell comprises a Grating (G) and an electron beam (e) passing thereover, with the result being that THz electromagnetic radiation is emitted. FIG. 2 b shows that a Free Electron Laser (FE) comprises a sequence of Magnetic Poles (MP), and again an electron beam (e⁻) passing thereover, with the result being that THz electromagnetic radiation is emitted. FIG. 2 c shows a Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO) comprises a Waveguide (WG) through which electromagnetic radiation (EM) is passed in one direction while an electron beam (e⁻) passes therethrough in the opposite direction, again with the result that THz electromagnetic radiation is emitted. FIG. 2 d demonstrates that a Terahertz source, (arbitrarily identified as (S1)), typically requires that a Frequency Multiplier (M) be present to provide an extended frequency range output, (eg. from 300 GHz or below through at lest 1.4 THz). While not diagrammatically shown, as there is really nothing to show, it is noted that an IR range Source of electromagnetic radiation is preferably a Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Source which provides a spectroscopic range of wavelengths. It is noted that (FTIR) actually refers to an approach in analysis of a spectrum of wavelengths involving use of a means for collecting a multiplicity of wavelengths simultaneously, and application of a Fourier Transform to data, rather than via use of a monochromator. However, it is common to identify the Source of the spectrum of IR wavelengths as an FTIR Source. It is specifically noted that while the Odd-Bounce Image Rotation System, (see FIGS. 3 a and 3 b), is present in the IR-VASE®, it has never been applied at frequencies below 10 THz. And specifically, it has never been applied in systems comprising a Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO) or a Smith-Purcell cell or a Free Electron Laser which provide frequencies down to 300 GHz or below. The application thereof at said frequencies is new with the present invention. It is also new with the present invention to combine a FTIR Source with Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO) or a Smith-Purcell cell or a Free Electron Laser to provide a practical system for practicing ellipsometry over a wide frequency range of from 300 GHz or below upward through the IR range.

FIGS. 2 e and 2 f demonstrate basic components of Detectors, (eg. Golay cell (GC) and Bolometer (BOL)). A Golay cell basically comprises two Chambers (CH1) and (CH2). In use electromagnetic radiation (EM) enters one Chamber (CH1) and heats a gas therein, which expands. This causes the Diaphram (DIA) to change shape which causes a Probe Beam (PB) entered to the Second Chamber (CH2) to reflect along a different pathway which is then detected by a detector (not shown). FIG. 2 f shows that a Bolometer (BOL) operates by directing a electromagnetic radiation to impinge on a material ( ) which changes resistance with its temperature. Also shown are a Voltage Source (V) and a Current Detector (I). In use a change in the current flow indicates that the electromagnetic radiation has heated the material (Ω). FIG. 2 g show a demonstrative detector of Terahertz frequencies comprises a P/N Junction onto which electromagnetic radiation (EM) is impinged, and which produces a measurable voltage (V). Further, while many materials can be applied in solid state devices, a particularly relevant material for application in THz and IR frequency ranges is disclosed as being “Deuterated Triglycine Sulfate”, which is typically referred to as (DTGS), optionally embedded in Poly-Vinylidene Fluoride (PVDF). Said material shows very high pyroelectric performance.

(Note, FIG. 2 g should also be considered to present at least a portion of a solid state Source of Terahertz frequencies, wherein a voltage is applied, and electromagnetic radiation emission results. It is to be understood that Solid State Sources and Detectors for providing and detecting THz and/or IR frequency range electromagnetic radiation can be substituted for, or used in combination with any of the other types of Source and Detector types identified herein).

Turning now to FIGS. 3 a and 3 b, there is represented in FIG. 3 a a three (3) bounce Odd Bounce image rotating system (OBIRS) comprising three (3) reflective elements (RE1), (RE2) and (RE3), oriented with respect to one another such that an input beam of electromagnetic radiation (EMI) exits as an output beam of electromagnetic radiation (EMO) without any deviation or displacement being entered into the locus thereof. FIG. 3 b demonstrates a five (5) bounce odd bounce image rotating system (OBIRS) wherein five reflective elements (RE1′), (RE2′) (RE3′), (RE4′) and (RE5′) oriented with respect to one another such an input beam of electromagnetic radiation (EMI) exits as an output beam of electromagnetic radiation (EMO) without any deviation or displacement being entered into the locus thereof. Note generally that the angle of incidence of the (EMI) and (EMO) beams of electromagnetic radiation are nearer normal than is the case in the FIG. 3 a three (3) bounce odd bounce image rotating system (OBIRS). This is beneficial in that the closer to normal the angle of incidence, the less aberration effects are entered to the beam. However, it is also to be appreciated that construction of the FIG. 3 b system is more difficult than is construction of a FIG. 3 a system.

FIG. 4 demonstrates a preferred compensator (C) (C′) for use in a rotating compensator ellipsometer system for application in third IR range of wavelengths. The compensator system comprises, as shown in upright side elevation, first (OS1) and second (OS2) orientation adjustable mirrored elements which each have reflective surfaces. Note the adjustability enabling pivot (PP1) (PP2) mountings. Said compensator system further comprises a third element (TE) which, as viewed in upright side elevation presents with first (IS1) and second (IS2) sides which project to the left and right and downward from an upper point (UP2), said third element (TE) being made of material which provides reflective interfaces on first and second sides inside thereof. Said third element (TE) is oriented with respect to the first (OS1) and second (OS2) orientation adjustable elements such that in use an input electromagnetic beam of radiation (LB) caused to approach one of said first (OS1) and second (OS2) orientation adjustable mirrored elements along an essentially horizontally oriented locus, is caused to externally reflect therefrom upwardly vertically oriented, (see beam (R1)) then enter said third element (TE) and essentially totally internally reflect from one of said first and second sides thereof, then proceed along an essentially horizontal locus (see beam (R2)), and essentially totally internally reflect from the other of said first (OS1) and second (OS2) sides and proceed along an essentially downward vertically oriented locus, (see beam (R3)), then reflect from the other of said first (OS1) and second (OS2) adjustable mirrored elements and proceed along an essentially horizontally oriented (LB′) propagation direction locus which is essentially undeviated and undisplaced from the essentially horizontally oriented locus of said input beam of electromagnetic radiation even when said compensator is caused to rotate about the locus of the beam of electromagnetic radiation, with the result being that retardation is entered between orthogonal components of said input electromagnetic beam of radiation. Also shown are third element lower side (IS3), with indication that it can be shaped as shown by (IS3′), and retain functionality.

FIGS. 5 a and 5 b demonstrate systems which can be used as Polarizer (P) and Analyzer (A) in FIGS. 1 a-1 c. FIG. 5 a demonstrates a Polarizer (P) comprised of Non-Brewster Angle (NBR) and Non-Brewster (BR) Angle components. Shown is a beam of electromagnetic radiation (EMW) passing demonstrates a compensator design for optional compensators (C) (C′) will be present and caused to rotate during data acquisition and the odd bounce image rotating system (OBIRS) will be stepped to various azimuthal angle positions and set motionless during data acquisition, which the fixed linear polarizer (FP) and analyzer (A) (A′) are held stationary. That is, the preferred present invention application is in a rotating compensator ellipsometer system, wherein the combination of the fixed polarizer and the odd bounce image rotating system (OBIRS) provide an effective rotatable polarizer. This is useful where a polarizer, (such as tipped wire grid plate polarizers used in the IR wavelength range), is difficult to rotate while maintaining alignment of the components therein and while avoiding deviation and displacement affects between input (EMI) and output (EMO) electromagnetic beams.

FIG. 5 b demonstrates an alternative possible polarizer, comprising a dual tipped wire grid polarizer system comprising first (WG1) and second (WG2) wire grid polarizers which have fast axes of polarization oriented with their fast axes parallel to one another, each thereof having first and second essentially parallel surfaces. Note however, that the essentially parallel sides of (WG1) are tipped with respect to the essentially parallel sides of (WG2), as characterized by the angle (α). The purpose of angle (α) is to divert unwanted reflections (R1) and (R2).

Note that both Polarizers in FIGS. 5 a and 5 b provide substantially undeviated and undisplaced output beams therefrom, with respect to beams input thereto, even when the polarizer is rotated about the locus of a beam of electromagnetic radiation.

It is to be understood that while preferred embodiments of Polarizers provide a linear polarization as output, the present invention can be used with a substantially linearly polarizing polarizer, or a polarizer which provides partially linearly polarization. In the Claims the term “polarizer” should then be interpreted broadly to mean preferably a linear polarizer, but including polarizers which provide partially linearly polarization. Further, in combination with a Compensator, other polarization states can be achieved.

Finally, FIG. 6 shows that a preferred embodiment of the present invention allows sample investigation in both the THz and IR ranges, (eg. from 300 GHz to abut 1.4 THz, and from about 1.0 THz and higher frequency). Further, it is indicated that below about 1.4 THz a first (S1) is used to provide the electromagnetic radiation, and above about 1.0 THz a second (S2) Source is used to provide the electromagnetic radiation. FIG. 6 shows an overlap in the range of about 1.0 to about 1.4 THZ, and that a present invention system preferably provides the same results, (eg. ellipsometic PSI and/or DELKTA), when Detector output is analyzed to provide, for instance, a Sample characterizing PSI (ψ), (or DELTA (Δ)). FIG. 6 should be viewed as demonstrating a concrete and tangible presentation of results which can be achieved by application of the Present Invention.

FIG. 7 demonstrates displaying data (DIS) provided by a Detector (DET), (eg. D1, D2 D3 in FIGS. 1 a-1 d), obtained by practice of the present invention using machine readable media of a computer (CMP), as well as indicates the Computer (CMP) can control Ellipsometer/Polarimeter elements operation.

Having hereby disclosed the subject matter of the present invention, it should be obvious that many modifications, substitutions, and variations of the present invention are possible in view of the teachings. It is therefore to be understood that the invention may be practiced other than as specifically described, and should be limited in its breadth and scope only by the Claims. 

1. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system comprising: a) a source selected from the group consisting of: a1) an FTIR source (S2) of electromagnetic radiation in functional combination with a polarization state generator, that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range above about 1 THz; and a2) a polarization state generator comprising an FTIR source (S2) of electromagnetic radiation which provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range above about 1 THz, wherein said polarization state generator is selected from the group consisting of: a21) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded by an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system; and a22) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded by a polarization state generator entry polarizer; and a source selected from the group consisting of: a3) a THz source (S1) of electromagnetic radiation in functional combination with a polarization state generator, that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; and a4) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source (S1) of electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz, wherein said polarization state generator is selected from the group consisting of: a41) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded by an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system; and a42) a polarization state generator exit polarizer preceded by a polarization state generator entry polarizer; wherein said THz source (S1) of electromagnetic radiation comprising at least one selection from the group consisting of: a backward wave oscillator (BWO); a Smith-Purcell cell (SP); and a free electron laser (FE); optionally in functional combination with a frequency multiplier (M) for providing harmonics of a fundamental output frequency that provides substantially polarized frequency output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising means for selecting between said THz (S1) and FTIR (S2) sources; said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising: b) a sample (S) support; c) a detector system (D1) (D2) (D3) of electromagnetic radiation comprising at least one selection from the group consisting of: a golay cell (GC) detector; and a bolometer (BOL) detector; said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising, between said selected source and said selected detector, at least one selection from the group: a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer (P) between said source (S1) (S2) and said sample (S) support; a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer (A) between said sample support (S) and said detector (GC) (BOL); and a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator (C) (C′) between said source (S) and detector (GC) (BOL); such that in use a selected functional combination of selected source, optional polarization state generator, and detector is applied to cause electromagnetic radiation to pass impinge on and interact with a sample on said sample support (S), then enter said selected detector (D1) (D2) (D3), to the end that said detector produces an output.
 2. An ellipsometer or polarimeter as in claim 1, in which the A2 polarization state generator comprises an FTIR source (S2), and the A4 polarization state generator comprising a THz source (S1) are selected, and in which a22 and a42 are further elected.
 3. An ellipsometer or polarimeter as in claim 1, in which the A2 polarization state generator comprising an FTIR source (S2), and the A4 polarization state generator comprising a THz source (S1) are selected, and in which a21 and a41 are further elected.
 4. An ellipsometer or polarimeter as in claim 1, in which the A2 polarization state generator comprising an FTIR source (S2), and the A4 polarization state generator comprising a THz source (S1) are selected, and in which a21 and a42 are further elected.
 5. An ellipsometer or polarimeter as in claim 1, in which the A2 polarization state generator comprising an FTIR source (S2), and the A4 polarization state generator comprising a THz source (S1) are selected, and in which a22 and a41 are further elected.
 7. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system comprising: a) a source of electromagnetic radiation that provides at least partially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending to 1.4 THZ or higher, said source comprising a functional combination of: a THZ source of electromagnetic radiation in a frequency range of between 300 GHz or lower and extending to at least about 1.1 THZ, and an FTIR source of electromagnetic radiation in a frequency range of between about 1.1 THZ or lower and extending to at least 1.4 THZ, said source further comprising means for selecting between said FTIR AND THZ sources; b) a polarization state generator consisting of a series combination of a exit polarization state generator polarizer preceded by a selection from the group consisting of: an entry polarization state generator polarizer; and an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system; c) a sample support; d) at least one detector of electromagnetic radiation, said at least one detector being capable of detecting electromagnetic radiation in a range of between 300 GHz or lower and extending up at least 1.4 THZ; said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising, between said source and said detector, at least one selection from the group: a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said source and said sample support; a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample support and said detector; a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said source and detector; in addition to said polarization state generator components.
 8. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 6, in which the polarization state generator is characterized by: a selected odd-bounce polarization state rotation system is followed by said polarization state generator exit polarizer such that in use the odd-bounce polarization state generator receives an at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from the source thereof, rotates the polarization state of said at least partially polarized beam and then passes it through said polarization state exit polarizer which serves to improve the purity of the polarization state exiting therefrom.
 9. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 6, in which the polarization state generator is characterized by: a selected polarization state generator entry polarizer is followed by said polarization state generator exit polarizer such that in use the polarization state generator entry polarizer receives an at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from the source thereof and then passes it through said polarization state exit polarizer, said polarization state generator entry polarizer serving to enable avoiding a condition wherein an effective azimuth of the at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by the source thereof, and that of the polarization state generator exit polarizer present at essentially 90 degrees with respect to one another thereby preventing the at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from progressing beyond the polarization state generator exit polarizer.
 10. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system comprising: a) a THZ source of electromagnetic radiation that provides at least partially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending to 1.1 THZ or higher; b) a polarization state generator consisting of a series combination of a exit polarization state generator polarizer preceded by a selection from the group consisting of: an entry polarization state generator polarizer; and an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system; c) a sample support; d) at least one detector of electromagnetic radiation, said at least one detector being capable of detecting electromagnetic radiation in a range of between 300 GHz or lower and extending up at least 1.1 THZ; said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising, between said THZ source and said detector, at least one selection from the group: a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said source and said sample support; a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample support and said detector; a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said source and detector; in addition to said polarization state generator components.
 11. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 10, in which the polarization state generator is characterized by: a selected odd-bounce polarization state rotation system is followed by said polarization state generator exit polarizer such that in use the odd-bounce polarization state generator receives an at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from the source thereof, rotates the polarization state of said at least partially polarized beam and then passes it through said polarization state exit polarizer which serves to improve the purity of the polarization state exiting therefrom.
 12. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 10, in which the polarization state generator is characterized by: a selected polarization state generator entry polarizer is followed by said polarization state generator exit polarizer such that in use the polarization state generator entry polarizer receives an at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from the source thereof and then passes it through said polarization state exit polarizer, said polarization state generator entry polarizer serving to enable avoiding a condition wherein an effective azimuth of the at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by the source thereof, and that of the polarization state generator exit polarizer present at essentially 90 degrees with respect to one another thereby preventing the at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from progressing beyond the polarization state generator exit polarizer.
 13. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system comprising: a) an FTIR source of electromagnetic radiation that provides at least partially polarized output in a frequency range between 1.1 THz or lower and extending to 1.4 THZ or higher; b) a polarization state generator consisting of a series combination of a exit polarization state generator polarizer preceded by a selection from the group consisting of: an entry polarization state generator polarizer; and an odd-bounce polarization state rotation system; c) a sample support; d) at least one detector of electromagnetic radiation, said at least one detector being capable of detecting electromagnetic radiation in a range of between 1.1 THz or lower and extending up at least 1.4 THZ; said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising, between said source and said detector, at least one selection from the group: a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said THZ source and said sample support; a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample support and said detector; a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said source and detector; in addition to said polarization state generator components.
 14. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 13, in which the polarization state generator is characterized by: a selected odd-bounce polarization state rotation system is followed by said polarization state generator exit polarizer such that in use the odd-bounce polarization state generator receives an at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from the source thereof, rotates the polarization state of said at least partially polarized beam and then passes it through said polarization state exit polarizer which serves to improve the purity of the polarization state exiting therefrom.
 15. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 13, in which the polarization state generator is characterized by: a selected polarization state generator entry polarizer is followed by said polarization state generator exit polarizer such that in use the polarization state generator entry polarizer receives an at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from the source thereof and then passes it through said polarization state exit polarizer, said polarization state generator entry polarizer serving to enable avoiding a condition wherein an effective azimuth of the at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by the source thereof, and that of the polarization state generator exit polarizer present at essentially 90 degrees with respect to one another thereby preventing the at least partially polarized beam of electromagnetic radiation from progressing beyond the polarization state generator exit polarizer.
 16. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 1 wherein at least one odd bounce (OB) (OB′) optical image rotating system is selected and comprises an odd number of at least three reflective elements oriented such that a beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by said source of electromagnetic radiation interacts with each of said at least three reflective elements of said at least one odd bounce optical image rotating system and exits therefrom along a non-deviated non-displaced trajectory, said beam of electromagnetic radiation also interacting with a sample system placed on said stage for supporting a sample system, and said analyzer before entering said detector.
 17. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 16, in which the at least one odd bounce (OB) (OB′) optical image rotating system consists of a selection from the group consisting of: three; and five; reflective elements.
 18. A system as in claim 1, in which the backward wave oscillator is selected as the source.
 19. A system as in claim 1, which further comprises a chopper (CH) to chop the electromagnetic beam and provide substantially only the chopped electromagnetic beam to the detector.
 20. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 1, which comprises the selection: a2) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source (S1) of electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; and thereafter comprises at least one odd bounce (OB) (OB′) optical image rotating system which comprises: an odd number of at least three reflective elements oriented such that a beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by said source of electromagnetic radiation interacts with each of said at least three reflective elements of said at least one odd bounce optical image rotating system and exits therefrom along a non-deviated non-displaced trajectory, said beam of electromagnetic radiation also interacting with a sample system placed on said stage for supporting a sample system, and said analyzer before entering said detector.
 21. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 20, which comprises at least two rotating elements, each thereof being selected from the group consisting of: rotating polarizer (P); rotating compensator (C) (C′); rotating analyzer (A); and odd bounce (OB) (OB′) optical image rotating system.
 22. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 1, which comprises two rotating compensators (C) (C′).
 23. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 1, which comprises a rotating compensator (C) (C′) and a rotating analyzer (A).
 24. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 1, which comprises a rotating compensator (C) (C′) and at least one odd-bounce (OB) (OB′) optical image rotating system is selected and continuously rotated.
 25. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 1, which comprises a rotating analyzer (A) and said odd-bounce optical (OB) (PB′) image rotating system is continuously rotated.
 26. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 1 which further comprises a chopper (CH) to chop the electromagnetic beam and provide substantially only the chopped electromagnetic beam to the detector.
 27. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 1 which further comprises a chopper (CH) to chop the electromagnetic beam and provide substantially only the chopped electromagnetic beam to the detector; and comprises at least two rotating elements, each thereof being selected from the group consisting of: rotating polarizer (P); rotating compensator (C) (C′); rotating analyzer (A); and odd bounce (OB) (OB′) optical image rotating system; which are caused to rotate during data collection.
 28. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system comprising a selection from the group consisting of: a1) a source of electromagnetic radiation in functional combination with a polarization state generator that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; and a2) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source of electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising: b) a sample support; c) at least one detector of electromagnetic radiation, said at least one detector being capable of detecting electromagnetic radiation in a range of between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising, between said THz source and said detector, at least one selection from the group: a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said THz source and said sample support; a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample support and said detector; a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said source and detector.
 29. An ellipsometer or polarimeter as in claim 28, in which the selection group comprising at least one selection from the group: a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said THz source and said sample support; a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample support and said detector; a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said source and detector; further comprises: an electro, acousto or opto-modulator.
 30. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 28, in which said THz source of electromagnetic radiation comprises at least one selection from the group consisting of: a backward wave oscillator; a Smith-Purcell cell; and a free electron laser.
 31. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 30, in which the selection group for said THz source of electromagnetic radiation further comprises: a solid state source device.
 32. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 31, which further comprises a frequency multiplier means after said THz source of electromagnetic radiation, which frequency multiplier receives electromagnetic radiation output from said THz source, and provides harmonics of said electromagnetic radiation in a range of between said source output fundamental and about 1.6 THz.
 33. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 28, which further comprises at least one odd-bounce polarization state rotation system present between: said THz source of electromagnetic radiation; and said detector.
 34. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 28, in which said detector of electromagnetic radiation in a range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than 1 THz, is a selection from the group consisting of: a Golay cell; a bolometer.
 35. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 34, in which the selection group for said THz source of electromagnetic radiation further comprises: a solid state detector.
 36. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 28, which further comprises an FTIR source and a detector for detecting said FTIR frequency output in a frequency range above about 1 THz, and means for selecting between: said THz source of electromagnetic radiation that provides THz frequency output in a range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; and said FTIR source that provides output in an IR frequency range above about 1 THz.
 37. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 36, in which said detector for detecting said FTIR frequency output in a frequency range above about 1 THz, and in which said detector of electromagnetic radiation in a range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz, are each independently selected from the group: a Golay cell; a bolometer; and a solid state detector.
 38. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 36, in which the output from said THz source in functional combination, and that from said FTIR source overlap in frequency between at least 1.0 to 1.4 THz.
 39. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 38 in which the output from said THz source in functional combination, and that from said FTIR source overlap in frequency between at least 1.0 to 1.4 THz, such that substantially the same results, including ellipsometric results, are achieved by analyzing output from either of the selected detectors in the frequency range of between about 1.0 to 1.4 THz.
 40. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system comprising: a selection from the group consisting of: a1) an FTIR source of electromagnetic radiation in functional combination with a polarization state generator, that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range above about 1 THz; and a2) a polarization state generator comprising an FTIR source of electromagnetic radiation which provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range above about 1 THz; and a selection from the group consisting of: a3) a THz source of electromagnetic radiation in functional combination with a polarization state generator, that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; a4) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source of electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; wherein said THz source of electromagnetic radiation comprising at least one selection from the group consisting of: a backward wave oscillator; a Smith-Purcell cell; and a free electron laser; optionally in functional combination with a frequency multiplier for providing harmonics of a fundamental output frequency that provides substantially polarized frequency output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising means for selecting between said THz and FTIR sources; b) a sample support; c) a detector system of electromagnetic radiation comprising at least one selection from the group consisting of: a Golay cell detector; and a bolometer detector; said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising at least one odd-bounce polarization state rotation system present between: said selected source; and said selected detector; said ellipsometer or polarimeter system further comprising, between said selected source and said selected detector, at least one selection from the group: a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said THz source and said sample support; a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample support and said detector; and a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said source and detector; such that in use a selected functional combination of selected source and selected detector is applied to cause electromagnetic radiation to impinge on and interact with a sample on said sample support, then enter said selected detector, to the end that said detector produces an output.
 41. An ellipsometer or polarimeter as in claim 40 in which the selection group comprising at least one selection from the group: a stationary, rotatable or rotating polarizer between said THz source and said sample support; a stationary, rotatable or rotating analyzer between said sample support and said detector; a stationary, rotatable or rotating compensator between said source and detector; further comprises: an electro, acousto or opto-modulator.
 41. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 40, in which in which the output from the functional combination of said selected THz source and optional frequency multiplier, and that from said FTIR source overlap in frequency between at least 1.0 to 1.4 THz such that substantially the same results, including ellipsometric results, are achieved by analyzing output from either of the selected detectors in the frequency range of between about 1.0 to 1.4 THz.
 42. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 40, in which the THz source selection group further includes: a solid state source device; and wherein said means for selecting between said THz and FTIR sources further includes means for selecting said solid state source device; and in which the detector system selection group further includes: a solid state detector.
 43. A system as in claim 33 or 40, in which the backward wave oscillator is selected as the source.
 44. A system as in claim 33 or 40, which further comprises a chopper to chop the electromagnetic beam and provide substantially only the chopped electromagnetic beam to the detector.
 45. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 28, which comprises the selection: a2) a polarization state generator comprising a THz source of electromagnetic radiation that provides substantially polarized output in a frequency range between 300 GHz or lower and extending higher than at least 1 THz; and thereafter comprises at least one odd bounce optical image rotating system which comprises: an odd number of at least three reflective elements oriented such that a beam of electromagnetic radiation provided by said source of electromagnetic radiation interacts with each of said at least three reflective elements of said at least one odd bounce optical image rotating system and exits therefrom along a non-deviated non-displaced trajectory, said beam of electromagnetic radiation also interacting with a sample system placed on said stage for supporting a sample system, and said analyzer before entering said detector.
 46. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 45, which comprises at least two rotating elements, each thereof being selected from the group consisting of: rotating polarizer; rotating compensator; rotating analyzer; and odd bounce optical image rotating system.
 47. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 46, which comprises two rotating compensators.
 48. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 46, which comprises a rotating compensator and a rotating analyzer.
 49. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 46, which comprises a rotating compensator and said odd-bounce optical image rotating system is continuously rotated.
 50. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 46, which comprises a rotating analyzer and said odd-bounce optical image rotating system is continuously rotated.
 51. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 45 which further comprises a chopper to chop the electromagnetic beam and provide substantially only the chopped electromagnetic beam to the detector.
 52. An ellipsometer or polarimeter system as in claim 45 which further comprises a chopper to chop the electromagnetic beam and provide substantially only the chopped electromagnetic beam to the detector; and comprises at least two rotating elements, each thereof being selected from the group consisting of: rotating polarizer; rotating compensator; rotating analyzer; and odd bounce optical image rotating system; which are caused to rotate during data collection. 